John Stuart Mill was a British philosopher, economist and statesman. Born on 20th May 1806 in Pentonville, London, he was the son of James Stuart Mill, the best friend and follower of Jeremy Bentham. In his early days, he was home-schooled by his father. He became a secretary and research assistant to his father. At 17, he was employed in the East Indian Company (upon retirement, he became a member of the House of Commons).

However, he suffered a nervous breakdown at the age of 21 and went through a long period of mental depression. The primary reason for this was the hectic, laborious, and monotonous life imposed upon him by his father and Bentham. Mill recovered from his depression by reading poetries of Wordsworth, and after his recovery, he had a transformed vision of life. He started looking at his father's and Bentham's philosophy of Utilitarianism critically.

Bentham had confined his attention to his times' law and administration problems. Mill lived in the age when democracy was in the ascent. He became familiar with Alexis de Tocqueville's monumental study of "Democracy in America." Tocqueville had identified certain pitfalls of democracy, which deeply impressed Mills's sensitive mind.[1] Mill was an ardent champion of Liberty. At 24, he met a young woman, Harriet Taylor, whom he married after 20 years of friendship.

John Stuart Mill's essential works include Elements of Political Economy (1820), System of Logic (1843), Principles of Political Economy (1848); On Liberty (1859), The Considerations on Representative Government (1861), Utilitarianism (1863) and, The Subjection of Women (1869).[2]

Research Questions
Although the works of John Stuart Mill abound in several spheres of political, social and economic life, in this paper, I shall focus primarily on his theories of Utilitarianism, Liberty, Representative Government, and the Subjection of Women. This shall be done with the help of the following questions:

1. How did JS Mill reform the theory of Utilitarianism given by Bentham?
2. What was the liberal concept of "liberty" given by J. S. Mill?
3. What was the concept of government that J.S. Mill prescribed in his "Theory of Representative Democracy"?
4. What was Mill's concept of "Subjection of Women" in collaboration with his wife, Harriet?

How Did J.S. Mill Reform The Theory Of Utilitarianism Given By Bentham?

1. Bentham's Utilitarianism According to Bentham, nature had placed man under the governance of two sovereign masters: pleasure and pain. Not only do we do what they dictate, but we ought to do it that way. He argued that the quality of pleasure is unnecessary; only the quantity of pleasure matters. There cannot be higher or lower pleasure; there can only be more or less pleasure. Pelicific Calculus was a formula given by Bentham to measure pleasure. According to Bentham, the state should follow the Greatest Happiness of the Greatest Number concept. The state should make policies that favour or give pleasure to the majority. The state should not intervene in the economy on behalf of poor people. According to him, when the nation grows, poverty will disappear.^[3]
2. Mill's Utilitarianism Mill, critiquing Bentham's stance, compounded that pleasure is quantitative and qualitative. As pleasure differs in quality, man also varies in quality. As Plato said: "Some are men of reason, some are men of courage, and some are men of appetite." The thing which gives pleasure to the common man may not give pleasure to a man like Socrates. According to Mill, "It is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied." Mill also believes that all human actions are guided by utility; they will do what gives them pleasure and avoid pain. However, we should have a broader perspective of this utility, which means that not just quantity but quality matters. Not just the satisfaction of the body but also the satisfaction of the soul matters.^[4]

What Was The Liberal Concept Of "Liberty" Given By J. S. Mill?

John Stuart Mill was the first philosopher to give an in-depth view on the liberal concept of Liberty in his book "On Liberty". Liberty helps an individual in the fullest development of his personality. A state that denies individuals Liberty hinders their development and, in turn, its progress. Therefore, no state can become great by dwarfing its people. Mill identifies some significant areas where the individual's Liberty must be protected- Freedom of Action, Freedom of Thought and Expression, and Freedom of Character (Individuality).[5]

1. Freedom Of Action: Harm Principle Mill identifies two types of actions of man: Self-regarding and Other-Regarding. Self-Regarding actions of man do not affect the community, and a man has complete freedom of conduct in this sphere. Other-regarding actions of man affect the community. A person is not entirely free; the community, society, or state can regulate his actions. Man's actions will be considered as other-regarding actions, and the state's intervention will be justified only if man's actions will be more than just a minor discomfort and if the regulation by the community would not prove more harmful than the behaviour itself. "The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others." – J.S. Mill The state could also interfere in self-regarding actions if they injure the individual. For instance, the state can prevent a man from crossing a bridge which was known to be unsafe or was about to fall. "A person may cause evil to others not only by his actions but also his inactions, and in either case, he is justly accountable to them for the injury." – J.S. Mill The only exception to this harm principle was when people did not have their total mental capacity. For Mill, this included children who should be under the tutelage of parents and people from non-European nations, whom Mill regarded as insufficiently developed to exercise self-governance.
    
2. Freedom Of Speech and Expression Out of all liberties, the most important is freedom of speech and expression because the ability to speak is the most distinguishing element between man and animal. To lead a good life, we must understand what truth is, i.e. what is right and wrong, and for that, we need to examine our beliefs or dialectics, which is impossible without the freedom of speech and expression. According to Mill, there is no point in stopping a person from speaking his mind—if he is wrong, he will understand and will keep quiet, and if he is correct, then it is to our benefit that we can reform ourselves. Thus, silencing the opposition for Mill denotes that a person thinks of himself as infallible or God.
    
3. Freedom Of Character Mill thought that one of the significant tendencies of the 19th century was the growth of equality. This growth could improve society, but it also had certain dangers like loss of individuality. Against this tendency, Mill argued that individuals should be able to develop their unique personalities according to their desires.

Influenced by De Tocqueville's analysis of American Culture, Mill came to think that the chief danger of democracy was suppressing individual differences. Individuals should be taught to be critical-minded, open to differences, and capable of reasoning. According to Mill, diversity of character drives a society. Hence, individuality and Liberty to develop one's personality/character is good for the individual and the society.[9]

What Was The Concept Of State That J.S. Mill Prescribed In His Theory Of Representative Democracy?

According to Mill, Liberty can only be achieved in a democratic state. Therefore, he favoured democracy over any other form of government. He said direct democracy is ideal, but representative democracy is the most practicable. In modern society, everyone needs to focus on their specialised profession. So they cannot pay enough attention to politics and need representatives. In a direct democracy, there is a risk of majority tyranny. So, according to Mill, representative democracy is the best and most viable option.

Mill elaborated that individuals elect representatives to govern and make decisions on their behalf. A select few govern effectively by questioning, debating, and holding the government accountable. Governing requires expertise; thus, the government should be administered by a skilled bureaucracy under the supervision of elected representatives.[10]

According to Mill, democracy can be introduced where people are civilised. Uncivilised or "barbaric" people should not live in colonies. These people require benevolent despotism until they become civilised.

Additionally, Mill feared democracy turning into the tyranny of the majority. During his time, there was a demand for the right to vote for the working class or the "ignorant poor". He was afraid of a time when the poor and uneducated would get a significant say in the formulation of laws. He suggested some reforms to protect democracy from becoming a "Mobocracy". Mill suggested the following in his book, "Representative Government": weighted voting, plural voting, strengthening the powers of the upper house (House of Lords), proportional representation, right to vote to women and open ballot.

Despite his support for democracy, Mill is often called a "Reluctant Democrat" because he was not in favour of democracy across the globe and in more excellent support of the rights of educated and propertied men while completely ignoring the working class.[11]

What Was Mill's Concept Of "Subjection Of Women"?

1. What is the Subjection of Women?
It refers to a societal, cultural practice in which women are considered inferior to men and are subjected to various forms of discrimination, oppression, and control. This can include limitations on their freedom, opportunities, rights, and unequal treatment in education, employment, and politics. According to Mill, women are subjected due to the following reasons:
• Historical Accident: In the past, society was organised based on physical strength. Since men generally were physically stronger than women, they could dominate society. According to Mill, this historical accident has persisted, even though women can now compete with men on intellectual and moral grounds.
   
• Legal and Political Disenfranchisement: Mill argues that women have been systematically excluded from legal and political institutions, allowing men to maintain power over them. Without access to political power, women cannot advocate for their interests.
   
• Socialization and Education: Mill contends that women have been socialised from a young age to live under men's control and be obedient towards them. This socialization is intensified by the education system, which has traditionally focused on teaching women domestic skills and neglecting their intellectual development.
   
• Economic Dependency: Mill posits that women have historically been economically dependent on men, reinforcing their subjection.
   
• Marriage: Mill considers marriage as the chief institution of subjection. There is an unequal partnership between men and women in marriage. It is like a legalised bondage/slavery/subjugation of women. They have no right to property, inheritance, or custody of children under the law. There is no individual identity, social standing, or economic security for women after marriage.
   
2. Why does Mill oppose the Subjection of Women?
• Utility Loss: Mill was a utilitarian. He related the subjection of women to utility and said that due to the subjection of women, the brainpower and talents of half the human race are underutilized, leading to a huge utility loss in society.
   
• Loss of Liberty: Mill was a champion of liberty. He said that everyone should have liberty, and due to the subjection of women, half of the population was deprived of liberty.
   
• No Rationale: There is no logical basis for the subjection of women. Women have the same capacity for reason and self-development as men; any difference between the sexes is due to socio-cultural factors.
   
• Harmful to Men: The subjection of women also harms men in many ways. It debases men's nature and intellectual attainments, hindering their flourishment in an unequal partnership. Mill contended that men will behave more civilised when women are in the public sphere. It will also improve their productivity.
   
3. How can the Subjection Of Women be ended?
• Equal Education: Mill believed education was the key to women's empowerment. He suggested that women should receive the same education as men. This would give them the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in society and challenge traditional gender roles and stereotypes.
   
• Suffrage: Mill was a strong proponent of the women's suffragette movement. He argues that women's voices and perspectives are needed in politics. Giving women the right to vote would help break gender barriers and create a more egalitarian society.
   
• Equal Rights: Mill believed that women should have the same legal rights as men and that laws should not discriminate based on gender. He argued that women should get equal property rights and be able to make decisions for their own lives without interference from men.
   
• Cultural Change: Mill recognised that changing social attitudes and cultural norms was essential to end the subjection of women. He called for a cultural shift to value women as individuals and recognised their contributions to society.

Conclusion
John Stuart Mill's philosophy, initially influenced by Hume and Bentham, addresses the challenges of modernity and mass society. Like Nietzsche, he explores the implications of a post-Christian world. Mill's work significantly impacted moral and political philosophy, emphasizing the importance of political philosophy in moral theory.

Mill critiques Bentham's theory of Utilitarianism and adds his input to it. While he concurred with Bentham's view that Pains and Pleasures control man, he, contrary to the latter's view, compounded that the quantity as well as quality of the two matters.

His work, On Liberty, champions the sphere of individual freedom and the harm principle, asserting that Liberty should be restricted only when it causes harm to others. It underscores the importance of freedom of speech and expression, individualism and the limitation of government's powers. Mill's work remains a fundamental text in political thought and philosophy, advocating for a society where individuals have the opportunity to realise their potential and develop to their fullest while also harbouring diverse opinions.

His theory of Representative Democracy emphasises the balance between elite competence and mass participation. Mill also realised that the government business is complex and only qualified persons were fit to perform it. However, his ideas of an expert executive ensure informed and capable leadership to guide societal progress.[15]

J.S. Mill was a strong supporter of the women's suffragette movements. He left half his estate for women's rights associations upon his death. His work, The Subjection Of Women, remains a classic treatise for liberal feminism, delving into the deeper reasons for female subjection and its negative consequences and solutions to eradicate it.

In a nutshell, Mill's works remain foundational to the arena of political thought and philosophy. His ideas and beliefs remain significant even in the modern era, given that their cornerstone was placed by people like Bentham and his wife, Harriet Taylor.

Bibliography
Books

• On John Stuart Mill, Philip Kitcher, ISBN # 9780231555395
• Great Political Thinkers, William Ebenstein, 1951

Articles

1. John Stuart Mill: Bibliography, University of Texas at Austin Britannica CD, Version 98 ©1994-1997. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
2. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill/
3. https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Stuart-Mill
4. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bentham/
5. https://thegreatthinkers.org/mill/introduction/
6. John Stuart Mill's "The Subjection of Women", Elizabeth S. Smith, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Winter, 2001), pp. 181-203 (23 pages), The University of Chicago Press
7. Marital Slavery and Friendship: John Stuart Mill's The Subjection of Women, Mary Lyndon Shanley, Vol. 9, Sage Publications, Inc.
8. Representative Democracy and Colonial Inspirations: The Case of John Stuart Mill, Cambridge.org
9. https://politicsforindia.com/j-s-mill-political-ideas/

End Notes:

1. Early Life and Career, John Stuart Mill, Britannica Encyclopaedia.
2. Influence and Significance of John Stuart Mill, Britannica Encyclopaedia.

Pains and Pleasures, Jeremy Bentham, Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.

1. Mill's Conception of Happiness, Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
2. Liberalism, John Stuart Mill, Great Thinkers.
3. On Liberty and Freedom of Character and Action, Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
4. J S Mill: Political Ideas - Politics for India
5. On Liberty and Freedom of Speech, Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
6. On Liberty and Freedom of Character and Action, Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
7. Authority and Democracy, Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
8. Representative Government and Democracy, John Stuart Mill, Great Thinkers.
9. Equality, the Sexes, and the Nineteenth Century, Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
10. The Status of Women, John Stuart Mill, Great Thinkers.
11. John Stuart Mill's "The Subjection of Women", Elizabeth S. Smith, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Winter, 2001), pp. 181-203 (23 pages), The University of Chicago Press.
12. Representative Democracy and Colonial Inspirations: The Case of John Stuart Mill.

Written By: Ishika Tanwar